UTILITARIANISM

=UTILITARIANISM=

Basic Principles of the Theory -
The basic thought process of Utilitarianism is what is referred to as the principle of utility or greatest happiness principle (MacKinnon, 2007). The idea behind this theory is that the best moral choice is the one which produces the highest amount of pleasure or happiness, and also we should do things that provide the most amount of happiness for the highest number of people. In other words, the more happiness, the better. Our own happiness is no more important than that of the next person. It is also important to note that it is understood that some actions will cause pain, but those actions are considered more acceptable if a higher amount of pleasure versus pain is the end result (MacKinnon, 2007).

Specifics of the Ethical Approach -
Utilitarianism is often considered universalistic because it's focus is not on the individual, but instead on the happiness and pleasure of all involved. When addressing the specifics of Utilitarianism, it is important to understand two key concepts. The first is that Utilitarianism is primarliy concerned with the end result or goal of any action and not the nature of the act itself. Secondly, it is a consequentialist moral theory, meaning that neither the nature of the act nor the motive is important, but instead the actual consequence of the action. According to Utilitarianism, one must weigh the likley or actual consequences of each potential action in order to decide which will create the most pleasure or happiness.

Intrinsic goods are also an important concept in Utilitarianism. It is assumed that happiness and pleasure are the only things that are intrinsicly good, or good in and of themselves. Since the outcome of happiness and pleasure is key, Utilitarianism theory seeks to quantify the amount of happiness or pleasure that will result from different actions. It does this through several means, by weighing pleasure minus pain, the intensity of the happiness or pleasure, the duration of the happiness or pleasure, the fruitfulness, the quality of the pleasure and the likelihood of what the result of each action will be. An important criticism of Utilitarianism is that no one can really truly measure and consider all of the aforementioned variables that it would require us to look at before making a decision (MacKinnon, 2007).

Historical Background -
The foundation of Utilitarianism moral theory was developed by two key individuals: Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Bentham preceded Mill in his formulation of the theory which Mill later expanded upon. Bentham, a colleague of Mill's father, was an English philosopher and prominent social and legal (notably criminal law) reformer. His primary work that outlines his philosophy is entitled //Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation// (published in 1789). In this tome, he explains the principle of utility, which promotes and approves of an action that can provide the greatest amount of happiness. In order to determine the consequence of a particular action, Bentham developed a felicific (happiness-making) calculus, an equation that takes into account the "intensity, duration, likelihood, extent, etc. of pleasures and pains" (http://www.utilitarianism.com/bentham.htm).

Bentham did not believe that there are two sets of principles, one for personal morality and another for social morality (MacKinnon, 2007). This led to his condemnation of the belief of natural rights, on the basis that it encouraged violence, as expressed within the historical context of the French Revolution. Bentham was considered an optimist, however, after being disillusioned by government and legislators, he became a greater fan of democratic reform. His hope was with further education and reform, people would make better decisions that would lead to the furthering of overall greater happiness.

John Stuart Mill was a loyal follower of Bentham's principles. Mill was a dedicated scholar of Greek and Latin and was a well-versed in logic and economics. He had a prolific career working for the East India Company in addition to serving as a Liberal MP for Westminster (http://www.utilitarianism.com/jsmill.htm). His published works include //System of Logic// (1843), //Principles of Political Economy// (1848), //ON Liberty// (1859), //Utilitarianism// (1861), //The Subjection of Women// (1869), and //Autobiography// (1873).

When he was 20, Mill suffered from a nervous breakdown, which profoundly affected his philosophical views on utilitarianism, personal liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. He expanded upon Bentham's view of Utilitarianism with a criticism of its simplistic nature of a "dry calculation of pleasure units" (http://www.utilitarianism.com/johnstuartmill.htm) and urged a scientific approach to understanding social, political, and economic change while not neglecting the insights, vivid imaginations, and contributions of poets, artists, and writers. In contrast to Bentham, this led to his belief that happiness should not only be measured in quantity but also quality; "intellectual pleasures, for example, are more valuable in themselves than purely sensual pleasures" (MacKinnon, 2007). These ideas of bold, imaginative ambitions and personal liberty were developed and inspired by communication between Mill and his wife, Harriot Taylor. It is also worthy to note that Mill, in //On the Subjection of Women//, wrote that women should be free to cultivate their talents and contribute them to the general good of society, thus becoming an early proponent of feminism (MacKinnon, 2007). Both Bentham and Mill were considered progressives, optimists, and challengers to the status quo in their philosophy and views on reform.

Two Examples -
An example of utilitarianism ethics was the decision of the United States to enter WWII. At the beginning of the war, the U.S. was not officially engaged, but stayed indirectly involved by supplying the British and Soviet Union with weapons, pilots and other supplies. When the U.S. decided to enter the war, they were making the morally just decision because the consequences of their actions benefited more people than if they had never entered the war. Not only were American lives saved by the prevention of additional attacks on U.S. soil, but provided enough force to help end the war. Therefore, this saved the lives of many British, Soviets and prisoners of the Nazi concentration camps.

Here's a hypothetical example of utilitarianism: Say there is a train coming toward a group of 5 people tied to the tracks and you're standing by the lever to make the train go onto a different path that is heading towards yourself. A utilitarian would pull the lever to make the train head in his/her direction. Killing one person creates a greater amount of good than killing 5 people.

References-
What is an example of utilitarianism? (n.d.) Retrieved March 5, 2009, from WikiAnswers: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_an_example_of_utilitarianism

MacKinnon, Barbara. (2007). //Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues// (Sixth Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadworth Cengage Learning.

Mautner, Thomas. //The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy//. John Stuart Mill. Retrieved March 6, 2009 from http://www.utilitarianism.com/jsmill.htm.

Mautner, Thomas. //The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy//. Jeremy Bentham. Retrieved March 6, 2009 from http://www.utilitarianism.com/bentham.htm.

Reeves, Richard. (December 9, 2007). //John Stuart Mill: Victorian Firebrand.// Retrieved March 6, 2009 from http://www.utilitarianism.com/johnstuartmill.htm.